The Nature of First-Order Logic What most people call logic is technically called first-order logic. The nomenclature suggests that there must be second-, third-, fourth-, and infinite other higher-order logics. Most people are unaware of these higher-order logics because they violate the three principles of first-order logic—(a) the law of […]
Logic / Philosophy
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The Inseparability of Epistemology, Ontology, and Logic
The Effect of Western Dualisms Since Greek times, Western philosophy has separated subjects from each other. These include epistemology (how we know), ontology (what exists), and logic (relations between propositions). The separation relies on two dualisms. First, the dualism of mind and body in which epistemology pertains to the mind […]
Logic
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The Drop in the Ocean Argument
Bhedābheda and Physical Analogies All physical analogies fail to correctly describe Bhedābheda philosophy. One such analogy is a drop in an ocean. The Bhedābheda proponent says: The drop is distinct from the ocean and yet one with it. The reductionist’s counter to that claim is that if you remove all […]
Logic
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Why So Much Emphasis on Logic?
Religions Frame Alternative Logics There is a widespread assumption at present that religion is independent of logic. Under this assumption, people might insist that claims of religion must be “logical”—i.e., follow the principles of identity, non-contradiction, and excluded middle. This attitude is predominantly Western because alternative logical systems have either […]
Computing / Logic / Physics
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The Laws of Nature in Vedic Philosophy
Laws in Western and Vedic Thinking Modern science uses two kinds of laws—these are called “conservation laws” and “predictive laws”. A conservation law states what cannot happen, and a predictive law states what must happen. For example, the law of conservation of energy says that if two particles collide then […]
Logic / Philosophy
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The Nyāya Philosophy of Presence and Absence
The Nyāya system of philosophy describes a category called abhāva or ‘absence’ and then explains how bhāva or ‘presence’ manifests from the absence. This is a very long discussion in Nyāya Sutra (which I’m translating presently) and has many nuances. It is hard to capture all these details here, but […]
Logic / Philosophy
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The Nyāya Conception of a Scientific Theory
Below is the translation and commentary on some of the Nyāya Sutras, which describe the nature of a scientific theory as comprised of four aspects. The first aspect represents the purpose of the system; the second, the functional parts that execute this purpose; the third, a mechanism of control that […]